Filtering Data with WHERE Clause

While the SELECT statement, as you've seen, retrieves data from your tables, you often don't need every single row. Imagine a Customers table with thousands of entries; you might only want to see customers from a specific city or those who signed up after a certain date. Retrieving everything and filtering it manually is inefficient and impractical.

This is where the WHERE clause comes into play. It acts as a filter for your SELECT statement, allowing you to specify conditions that rows must meet to be included in the result set. Think of it as setting criteria for your data retrieval.

Basic Syntax

The WHERE clause follows the FROM clause in a SELECT statement:

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

The condition part is where you define your filtering logic. This condition evaluates to true or false for each row in the table. Only rows where the condition is true are returned.

Using Comparison Operators

The most common way to define a condition is by using comparison operators. These operators compare values in a column with a specified value. Let's assume we have a simple Products table:

ProductID	Name	Category	Price	StockQuantity
1	Laptop	Electronics	1200	50
2	Coffee Mug	Home Goods	15	200
3	T-Shirt	Clothing	25	150
4	Smartphone	Electronics	800	75
5	Notebook	Stationery	5	500
6	Jeans	Clothing	60	100

Here are the standard comparison operators and examples using our Products table:

• = (Equal to): Finds rows where the column value exactly matches the specified value. Note that text values (strings) are usually enclosed in single quotes (' ').

  -- Find products in the 'Clothing' category
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Category = 'Clothing';
  

  Result: T-Shirt, Jeans

• <> or != (Not equal to): Finds rows where the column value does not match the specified value. Both operators generally work, though <> is standard SQL.

  -- Find products NOT in the 'Electronics' category
  SELECT Name, Category
  FROM Products
  WHERE Category <> 'Electronics';
  

  Result: Coffee Mug, T-Shirt, Notebook, Jeans

• > (Greater than): Finds rows where the column value is numerically or alphabetically greater than the specified value.

  -- Find products with a price greater than $100
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Price > 100;
  

  Result: Laptop, Smartphone

• < (Less than): Finds rows where the column value is less than the specified value.

  -- Find products with less than 100 items in stock
  SELECT Name, StockQuantity
  FROM Products
  WHERE StockQuantity < 100;
  

  Result: Laptop, Smartphone

• >= (Greater than or equal to): Finds rows where the column value is greater than or equal to the specified value.

  -- Find products with a price of $800 or more
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Price >= 800;
  

  Result: Laptop, Smartphone

• <= (Less than or equal to): Finds rows where the column value is less than or equal to the specified value.

  -- Find products with a price of $25 or less
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Price <= 25;
  

  Result: Coffee Mug, T-Shirt, Notebook

Combining Conditions with Logical Operators

Often, you need to filter based on more than one condition. SQL provides logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) to combine multiple conditions within the WHERE clause.

• AND: Requires all connected conditions to be true for a row to be included.

  -- Find 'Electronics' products that cost less than $1000
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Category = 'Electronics' AND Price < 1000;
  

  Result: Smartphone (It's 'Electronics' AND its price is < 1000)

• OR: Requires at least one of the connected conditions to be true for a row to be included.

  -- Find products that are either 'Clothing' OR cost less than $10
  SELECT Name, Category, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Category = 'Clothing' OR Price < 10;
  

  Result: T-Shirt, Notebook, Jeans (T-Shirt and Jeans match the category, Notebook matches the price)

• NOT: Reverses the result of a condition. It's often used with other operators like IN or LIKE (discussed next), but can negate simple comparisons too.

  -- Find products that are NOT 'Clothing'
  SELECT Name, Category
  FROM Products
  WHERE NOT Category = 'Clothing';
  -- This is equivalent to: WHERE Category <> 'Clothing'
  

  Result: Laptop, Coffee Mug, Smartphone, Notebook

You can use parentheses () to control the order of evaluation when mixing AND and OR, just like in mathematics. Conditions inside parentheses are evaluated first.

-- Find Electronics OR (Clothing that costs more than $50)
SELECT Name, Category, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Category = 'Electronics' OR (Category = 'Clothing' AND Price > 50);

Result: Laptop, Smartphone, Jeans

Other Useful Filtering Operators

SQL offers more specialized operators for common filtering tasks:

• BETWEEN: Checks if a value falls within a specified range (inclusive).

  -- Find products with prices between $50 and $100 (inclusive)
  SELECT Name, Price
  FROM Products
  WHERE Price BETWEEN 50 AND 100;
  

  Result: Jeans

• IN: Checks if a value matches any value in a provided list. This is often more concise than multiple OR conditions.

  -- Find products in 'Home Goods', 'Stationery', or 'Clothing' categories
  SELECT Name, Category
  FROM Products
  WHERE Category IN ('Home Goods', 'Stationery', 'Clothing');
  

  Result: Coffee Mug, T-Shirt, Notebook, Jeans

• LIKE: Performs simple pattern matching on string values. It uses wildcard characters:

  • %: Represents zero, one, or multiple characters.
  • _: Represents exactly one character.

  -- Find products whose names start with 'L'
  SELECT Name
  FROM Products
  WHERE Name LIKE 'L%';
  

  Result: Laptop

  -- Find products whose names end with 't'
  SELECT Name
  FROM Products
  WHERE Name LIKE '%t';
  

  Result: Laptop, T-Shirt, Notebook

  -- Find products whose names have 'o' as the second letter
  SELECT Name
  FROM Products
  WHERE Name LIKE '_o%';
  

  Result: Coffee Mug, Notebook

Data Types Matter

Remember that when writing conditions, you need to respect the data types of the columns:

• Strings (Text): Enclose values in single quotes (e.g., 'Electronics'). Case sensitivity (whether 'Electronics' matches 'electronics') depends on the specific database system and its configuration.
• Numbers: Do not enclose values in quotes (e.g., 1200, 15.99).
• Dates: Usually enclosed in quotes, but the required format (e.g., 'YYYY-MM-DD') varies significantly between different database systems (like MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server).

Using the WHERE clause effectively is fundamental to working with databases. It transforms SELECT from a blunt instrument retrieving everything into a precise tool for extracting exactly the information you need based on specific criteria. As you practice, you'll find it indispensable for asking meaningful questions of your data.